Digital audio has a fixed ceiling of 0 dBFS (decibels full scale). Once a signal exceeds this level, it clips—flattening the peaks of the waveform and introducing harsh distortion.

Unlike analogue saturation, which can add pleasing harmonics, digital clipping produces abrupt, high-frequency artefacts that often sound brittle or aggressive.

To prevent this, engineers use compressors and limiters to control peaks and raise the overall level of a track. This allows music to be pushed louder without technically exceeding the digital ceiling.

However, loudness can be addictive, and music is often *perceived* to sound better when it’s louder.

This pursuit of loudness led to what’s commonly referred to as the “loudness wars”, particularly during the 1990s and 2000s. By reducing dynamic range—the difference between the loudest and quietest parts of a track—engineers were able to make releases sound louder and more competitive.

In response, and to ensure consumers experience a consistent listening level, streaming platforms introduced loudness normalisation. For most streaming services, this is around -14 LUFS for stereo, with lower targets for spatial formats. This means overly loud masters are simply turned down, reducing the advantage of excessive limiting.

Vinyl, on the other hand, comes with a very different set of constraints. Rather than a fixed digital ceiling, a vinyl cut is limited by the physical properties of the medium itself.

When audio is cut to vinyl, it is translated into a physical groove. The louder the signal, the wider and deeper the groove needs to be. Push things too far and you can run into playback issues, such as distortion, reduced playing time or even the needle skipping.

Because of this, cutting engineers have to carefully manage low frequencies, stereo width and overall level. Excessive low-end, particularly in the stereo field, can cause large groove movements that make the record difficult for the playback stylus to track. High frequencies, if not controlled, can also introduce distortion, particularly towards the inner grooves closest to the label.

Compression and limiting are still used in vinyl mastering, but the approach is different. The goal isn’t simply to make the track as loud as possible, but to create a balanced cut that translates well to the physical format.

Another important factor is surface noise—a constant, low-level noise caused by the stylus moving through the groove. To ensure the music sits clearly above this noise floor, the overall level needs to be strong enough without compromising playback stability.

This can present challenges for music with a wide dynamic range, such as classical or jazz, where very quiet passages may sit closer to the noise floor.

If a song has already been heavily limited during digital mastering, it leaves less room for the cutting engineer to make the optimal adjustments for vinyl. The result can be a record that sounds flat or overly compressed, lacking the depth and energy of a more dynamic master.

A well-prepared vinyl master gives the cutting engineer the flexibility to make these adjustments, resulting in a record that sounds more open, balanced and true to the original mix.

Recommended specs:

• File format: WAV or AIFF
• Bit depth: 24-bit (preferred)
• Sample rate: 44.1 kHz or higher

Peak level: Aim for around -3 dBFS to -6 dBFS

Avoid brickwall limiting at 0 dBFS.